Integrated circuits based on aligned nanotubes

ABSTRACT

Techniques, apparatus and systems are described for wafer-scale processing of aligned nanotube devices and integrated circuits. In one aspect, a method can include growing aligned nanotubes on at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate. The method can include transferring the grown aligned nanotubes onto a target substrate. Also, the method can include fabricating at least one device based on the transferred nanotubes.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/625,543, filed on Nov. 24, 2009, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,354,291, which claims priority under 35 USC §119(e) to U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 61/117,390, filed on Nov. 24, 2008, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Contract Nos. CCF0702204 and CCF0726815 awarded by National Science Foundation and Contract No. 2003-NT-1107 awarded by Center on Functional Engineered and Nano Architectonics. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

This application relates to aligned nanotubes.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) may provide much better performance for electronics than traditional silicon due to their high carrier mobility and current-carrying capacity. Nanotubes can work as ballistic and high mobility transistors, and integrated logic circuits such as inverters and ring-oscillators can be constructed using individual nanotubes.

Randomly grown nanotube networks can be used for flexible devices and circuits. However, the stripe-patterning used to remove heterogeneous percolative transport through metallic nanotube networks cannot be easily scaled to submicron regime, and only PMOS transistors have been demonstrated for the reported circuits.

SUMMARY

This application discloses techniques, apparatus and systems for full wafer-scale processing of massively aligned carbon nanotube arrays for high-performance submicron channel transistors and integrated nanotube circuits.

In one aspect, a method can include growing aligned nanotubes on at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate (1210); transferring the grown aligned nanotubes onto a target substrate (1220); and fabricating at least one device based on the transferred nanotubes (1230).

Implementations can optionally include one or more of the following features. The at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate can be sized to be at least one of two inches in diameter. Growing the aligned nanotubes on the at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate can be carried out with a temperature ramping rate of less than one ° C. per minute but greater than zero ° C. per minute near a quartz phase transition temperature to avoid breakage of quartz wafer.

Transferring the grown aligned nanotubes onto a target substrate can include coating the aligned nanotubes with a film; peeling off the film together with aligned nanotubes using a thermal tape to obtain a composite of the nanotubes and the film; pressing the composite of the nanotubes and the film against the target substrate; removing the thermal tape by heating up the target substrate; and removing the film to leave the nanotubes on the target substrate.

The method can include stacking multiple transfers of nanotubes to increase tube density. Stacking multiple transfers can include stacking multiple composites of the nanotubes and the film on top of each other and over the target substrate. The stacked composites can be etched together to form a network of the aligned nanotubes on the target substrate. The film can include at last one of a metal film or a polymer film. The metal film can include at least one of aluminum or copper. The polymer film can include Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA).

The fabricating can include fabricating submicron back-gated nanotube transistors on the transferred nanotubes with SiO₂ as a gate dielectric and Si as a back-gate at a wafer-scale. The fabricating can include fabricating submicron top-gated nanotube transistors on the transferred nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or HfO₂ as a gate dielectric and a metal electrode as a top-gate at a wafer-scale. Additionally, stacking multiple transfers of nanotubes can be performed to increase tube density. The fabricating can include fabricating submicron individual back-gated nanotube transistors on the transferred nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or HfO₂ as a back-gate dielectric and a metal electrode as an individual back-gate.

The method can include using a defect-tolerant circuit design for a nanotube based integrated circuit, wherein the defect-tolerant circuit design comprises etching away unwanted nanotubes and using same group of nanotubes for the at least one device. The individual back-gated nanotube transistors can facilitate a doping process. The method can include using at least one metal with low work functions as source and drain contacts to align the nanotubes for at least one of n-type nanotube transistors, PN junctions, or CMOS integrated circuits. The at least one metal with low work functions comprises Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Gadolinium (Gd), Dysprosium (Dy), Ytterbium (Yb), or Terbium (Tb). The fabricating can include fabricating multiple wafer-scale devices comprising at least one of back-gated transistors, top-gated transistors, CMOS inverters, CMOS NOR logic gates, CMOS NAND logic gates, or ring oscillators.

In another aspect, the described techniques can be used to implement a device that includes at least one of the following devices fabricated at a wafer-scale: submicron back-gated nanotube transistors fabricated on aligned nanotubes with SiO2 as a gate dielectric and Si as a back-gate; submicron top-gated nanotube transistors on aligned nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or HfO₂ as a gate dielectric and a metal electrode as atop-gate at a wafer-scale; or submicron individual back-gated nanotube transistors on aligned nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or HfO₂ as a back-gate dielectric and a metal electrode as an individual back-gate. The apparatus can include at least one of CMOS inverters, CMOS NOR logic gates, CMOS NAND logic gates, or ring oscillators.

In another aspect, the described techniques can be used to implement an apparatus that includes a wafer that includes at least one of the following devices: submicron back-gated nanotube transistors fabricated on aligned nanotubes with SiO2 as a gate dielectric and Si as a back-gate; submicron top-gated nanotube transistors on aligned nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or HfO₂ as a gate dielectric and a metal electrode as atop-gate at a wafer-scale; or submicron individual back-gated nanotube transistors on aligned nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or HfO₂ as a back-gate dielectric and a metal electrode as an individual back-gate. The wafer can include at least one of CMOS inverters, CMOS NOR logic gates, CMOS NAND logic gates, or ring oscillators.

The techniques, apparatus and systems described herein can provide one or more of the following advantages. For example, truly integrated high-performance nanotube circuits and wafer-scale fabrication can be fabricated. Technical implementations in fabricating the integrated nanotube circuits and wafer-scale fabrication can include wafer-scale synthesis and transfer of aligned nanotubes, and integrated submicron-scale device fabrication and tuning. In addition, the described techniques, apparatus and systems can be used to provide a defect-tolerant circuit design for integrated nanotube circuits. Additionally, the described techniques, apparatus and systems can be used to produce aligned nanotube devices that can that allow for wafer-scale fabrication and integration; enhance transistor performance; and allow for controlled doping to produce truly integrated circuits with p-type and n-type transistors on one chip. These and other aspects and their exemplary implementations are described in detail in the attached drawings, the description and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 a-i show an example of wafer-scale aligned nanotube synthesis, transfer, and fabrication.

FIG. 2 a-h show example characteristics of back-gated transistors down to submicron channel length.

FIGS. 3 a-h show examples of top-gated transistors for doping and truly integrated CMOS inverters.

FIG. 4 a-g show examples of PMOS NOR and NAND gates with top-gated transistors.

FIGS. 5 a-f show examples of defect-tolerant CMOS NOR and NAND with individual back-gated transistors.

FIG. 6 shows an example of a 4 inch quartz wafer with aligned nanotubes and patterned electrodes.

FIG. 7 shows a process of stacking multiple transfers.

FIGS. 8 a, 8 b, 8 c and 8 d show SEM images before a transfer, after 1-time transfer, after 2-time transfer, and after 4-time transfer, respectively.

FIG. 9 a shows a schematic diagram of an aligned nanotube device.

FIG. 9 b shows an SEM image of an aligned nanotube device.

FIG. 9 c shows a transfer (I_(D)-V_(G)) characteristics of a typical n-type nanotube transistor (L=4 μm, and W=8 μm) measured before and after electrical breakdown.

FIG. 9 d shows transfer characteristics of an aligned nanotube device after electrical breakdown measured under different drain voltages.

FIG. 9 e shows output characteristics (I_(D)-V_(D)) of aligned nanotube devices measured under different gate voltages.

FIGS. 10 a, 10 b and 10 c show a schematic diagram, optical microscope image and SEM image (with artificial color) of a diode device.

FIGS. 10 d, 10 e and 10 f show energy band diagrams in equilibrium; forward-bias and reverse-bias respectively.

FIG. 10 g shows two-terminal I-V characteristics of a PN-junction in linear scale, which exhibits clear rectifying behavior.

FIG. 10 h shows two-terminal characteristics of a PN-junction shown in logarithm scale, which exhibits clear rectifying behavior.

FIG. 10 i shows gate dependence of I-V characteristics of a diode.

FIGS. 11 a and 11 b show the schematic diagram and optical microscope image of the integrated CMOS inverter.

FIG. 11 c shows an SEM image (with artificial color) showing an n-type branch of the CMOS inverter which clearly highlights the aligned carbon nanotubes in the channel, original Ti/Pd metal contacts, Gd source/drain extensions and Ti/Au back-gate.

FIG. 11 d shows transfer characteristics of a p-type pull-up branch of a CMOS inverter.

FIG. 11 e shows transfer characteristics of an n-type pull-down branch of a CMOS inverter.

FIG. 11 f shows simulated inverter voltage transfer characteristics (VTC).

FIG. 11 g shows a comparison of measurement results with simulation results.

FIGS. 12 a-g show implementations of a process for wafer-scale processing of aligned nanotube devices.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Techniques, systems and apparatus are described for wafer-scale processing of aligned nanotube devices and integrated circuits. The described techniques, apparatus and systems can include wafer-scale synthesis of aligned nanotubes, wafer-scale transfer of nanotubes to silicon wafers, metallic nanotube removal and chemical doping, and defect-tolerant integrated nanotubes circuits. Synthesis of massive aligned nanotubes can be implemented on complete 4 inch quartz and sapphire substrates. The substrates with the massive aligned nanotubes can be transferred to 4 inch Si/SiO₂ wafers. Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) analogous fabrication is performed to yield transistors and circuits with features down to 0.5 μm, with high current density ˜20 μA/μm and good on/off ratios. In addition, chemical doping can be used to build a fully integrated complementary inverter with a gain ˜5. Further, a defect-tolerant design can be implemented for NAND and NOR gates. This full-wafer approach can be used as a foundation for future integrated nanotube circuits.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) may provide much better performance for electronics than traditional silicon due to their high carrier mobility and current-carrying capacity. Nanotubes can work as ballistic and high mobility transistors, and integrated logic circuits such as inverters and ring-oscillators can be constructed using individual nanotubes.

Randomly grown nanotube networks can be used for flexible devices and circuits. However, the stripe-patterning used to remove heterogeneous percolative transport through metallic nanotube networks may not be easily scaled to submicron regime, and only PMOS transistors were demonstrated for the reported circuits.

Aligned nanotubes can have significant advantages over randomly grown nanotubes in terms of manipulation and integration of nanotubes for device applications. Aligned nanotubes can be grown on sapphire, quartz or similar substrates, for example. Based on massively aligned SWNTs grown on sapphire, a high-yield, registration-free nanotube-on-insulator approach can be used to fabricate nanotube devices in a way analogous to the silicon-on-insulator process. Also, the aligned nanotube devices can be made based on aligned nanotubes on quartz with good uniformity over chip scale and minimized parasitic capacitance.

As described below, full wafer-scale processing of massively aligned carbon nanotube arrays for high-performance submicron channel transistors and integrated nanotube circuits can include growing massive highly aligned nanotubes on quartz and sapphire wafers (e.g., 4 inch in size) using meticulous temperature control and then transferring the aligned nanotubes onto Si/SiO₂ wafers using a facile transfer printing method. Wafer-scale device fabrication can be performed on 4 inch Si/SiO₂ wafer to yield submicron channel transistors and circuits with high on-current density ˜20 μA/μm and good on/off ratios. Additionally, chemical doping methods can be implemented to obtain CMOS inverters with a gain of ˜5, for example. A defect-tolerant circuit design for NAND and NOR devices can be implemented to guarantee the correct operation of logic circuit, regardless of the presence of mis-aligned or mis-positioned nanotubes. The wafer-scale nanotube-on-insulator processing using multiple aligned nanotubes as described in this specification can provide significant advantage over conventional processes based on individual nanotubes with respect to current output and device uniformity, and provides a practical and realistic approach for integrated nanotube circuit applications.

Aligned nanotube growth was previously limited to small pieces of quartz or sapphire substrates, as growing nanotubes over complete 4 inch wafers has been very difficult due to the quartz wafer breakage during temperature ramping and the difficulty in uniform growth on complete wafers. The techniques, apparatus and system described in this specification can be used to successfully synthesize aligned SWNTs arrays on 4 inch quartz and sapphire wafers.

FIGS. 1 a-i show an example of a full wafer processing that includes synthesis and transfer printing of aligned nanotubes, and device fabrication. First, both quartz and sapphire wafers are annealed to improve the alignment of nanotubes at 900° C. and 1100° C. for 1.5 hrs in air, respectively. FIG. 1 a shows a temperature flow chart 100 for annealing 104 and nanotube growth 102 on a sapphire wafer. FIG. 1 b shows a temperature flow chart 110 for annealing 114 and nanotube growth 112 on a quartz wafer. The temperature flow chart 110 shows the phase transition temperature 116 using a dashed line.

The thermally robust a-plane sapphire wafer can be annealed at 1100° C. at high ramping rate (45° C./min) as shown in FIG. 1 a, while the 4 inch quartz wafer requires meticulous temperature control (extremely slow ramping rate <1° C./min) to avoid wafer breakage due to the phase transformation of quartz from alpha (α) to beta (β) around 573° C., as shown in FIG. 1 b. In addition, the same total gas flow rate can be used for both the ramping up step (3000 sccm Ar and 600 sccm H₂) and the growth step (3000 sccm CH₄ and 600 sccm H₂) to minimize the temperature perturbation. The uniform temperature on entire wafer is needed for the uniform wafer-scale growth of aligned nanotubes on both quartz and sapphire wafers. To obtain uniform temperature, 9 feet-long growth furnace with three-zone temperature controller can be used.

FIG. 1 c shows a schematic diagram 120 and a photograph 122 of full wafer synthesis of aligned nanotubes on a 4 inch quartz wafer. The photograph 122 in the inset of FIG. 1 c shows an SEM image of aligned nanotubes. After growth, a facile transfer method is used to transfer the aligned nanotubes from 4 inch quartz or sapphire wafers to a target substrate, such as 4 inch Si/SiO₂ wafers.

FIG. 1 d-h show schematic diagrams and photographs showing the transfer procedure, such as gold film deposition (FIG. 1 d, reference no. 130), peeling off the gold film with nanotubes (FIG. 1 e, reference no. 140), transfer of the gold film with nanotubes onto a Si/SiO₂ substrate (FIG. 1 f, reference no. 150), etching away the gold film (FIG. 1 g, reference no. 160), and device fabrication on the transferred nanotube arrays (FIG. 1 h, reference no. 170). For example, a 100 nm thick gold film can be first deposited onto the aligned SWNTs on the original substrate to ensure conformal contact between nanotubes and the gold film (see FIG. 1 d). Other metal films such aluminum or copper film, and polymer films such as Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) can work equally well for this purpose. To transfer SWNTs onto the targeting substrate, Revalpha thermal tape (from Nitto Denko) is used. Revalph thermal tape has an interesting temperature-dependent adhesive property. For example, the thermal tape is highly adhesive at room temperature, but loses its adhesion at a moderate temperature of 120° C. This thermal tape can be pressed against the original substrate with nanotubes covered by the gold film, and then peeled off together with the gold film and nanotubes (see FIG. 1 e). The nanotube/gold film/thermal tape trilayer structure can be pressed against the target substrate, and the tape is then released by simply heating to 120° C. (see FIG. 10. The gold film can be subsequently removed using gold etchant, thus leaving a nice array of massively aligned SWNTs on the target substrate (see FIG. 1 g). SEM images of transferred nanotubes on Si substrate with 50 nm thickness of SiO₂ are shown in inset 162 of FIG. 1 g. The device fabrication based on transferred nanotubes on 4 inch Si/SiO₂ wafer (FIG. 1 h) can be obtained by standard silicon CMOS technology such as projection photolithography using a stepper with 0.5 μm resolution for submicron device patterning, metal deposition for electrodes, and high k dielectric (HfO₂ or Al₂O₃) deposition for gate dielectric.

FIG. 1 i shows photo images of example nanotube devices and circuits built on a 4 inch Si/SiO2 wafer chip. A typical chip can include at least six different types of devices, including back-gated transistors, top-gated transistors, CMOS inverters, CMOS NOR and NAND logic gates, and ring oscillators. In addition, RF transistors can be characterized.

On the bottom image 180, six areas are labeled using figure reference numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Figure reference number 1 represents a back-gated transistor. A corresponding sample image of the back gated transistor is shown in image 181. Figure reference number 2 represents a top-gated transistor. A corresponding sample image of the top-gated transistor is shown in image 182. Figure reference number 3 represents a CMOS inverter. A corresponding sample image of the CMOS inverter is shown in image 183. Figure reference number 4 represents a NOR logic gate. A corresponding sample image of the NOR logic gate is shown in image 184. Figure reference number 5 represents a NAND logic gate. A corresponding sample image of the NAND logic gate is shown in image 185. Figure reference number 6 represents a Ring oscillator. A corresponding sample image of the NOR logic gate is shown in image 186.

The electrical properties of nanotube transistors can be characterized as basic components for nanotube circuits. Compared with previous devices of micron or tens of micron channel length, the described techniques, apparatus and systems can be used to push the channel length to submicron for the first time. FIGS. 2 a-f show a schematic diagram 200, an SEM image 210, and charts 220, 230, 240, 250, 260 and 270 that describe the electrical characteristics of back-gated nanotube devices. Based on the transferred nanotubes on Si with 50 nm SiO₂, 5 Å Ti and 70 nm Pd are deposited as Source 202 and Drain 204 electrodes (see FIG. 2 a), followed by the removal of nanotubes outside the active channel with O₂ plasma. Such devices can be made with channel length (L) of 0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 μm and channel width (W) of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 μm, for example. The SEM image 210 in FIG. 2 b shows a typical submicron channel device with 2-3 tubes/μm.

The chart 220 in FIG. 2 c exhibits the current-gate voltage (I_(ds)-V_(g)) characteristics of the transistors at V_(ds)=1 V with W=100 μm and various channel lengths, showing on-currents at V_(g)=−10 V varying from several tens μA to 1.8 mA, reversely proportional to the channel length. The current-gate voltage (Ids-Vg) characteristics of the transistors are shown for channel length (L) of 0.5 μm 221, 0.75 μm 222, 1 μm 223, 2 μm 224, 5 μm 225, 10 μm 226 and 20 μm 227. Additionally, the normalized on and off-current densities (I_(ds)/W) can be deduced from the same devices in FIG. 2 c.

The transconductances (g_(m)) 232 can be calculated from the linear proportion of the transfer curves, as shown in the chart 230 in FIG. 2 d. The chart 230 also includes the on-current density I_(on) 234 and the off-current density I_(off) 236. The highest on-current density in a transistor with W=100 μm and L=0.5 μm is up to 20 μA/μm, and gm is close to 100 μS. This on-current density is the highest achieved so far for aligned nanotube transistors, as a result of the submicron channel length we used. The performance of these devices can be improved even further with higher-density nanotubes.

To improve the on/off ratio (I_(on)/I_(off)), controlled electrical breakdown is used to remove metallic and high-leakage semiconducting nanotubes. In some implementations, an automated electrical breakdown process is implemented by setting target on/off ratio and on-current, and then using computer control to perform multiple steps of breakdown until the target values were reached. This process, when combined with an automatic probe station, can make electrical breakdown fairly practical for wafer-scale processing. The backgate is set to 15 V to turn off the desired semiconducting nanotubes, while the source/drain voltage (V_(ds)) is swept from 0 to −35 V to electrically stress and break the undesired tubes.

The chart 240 in FIG. 2 e shows that the I_(on)/I_(off) of a transistor with W=100 μm and L=0.75 μm significantly increases from ˜2 to 10³ with multiple steps of electrical breakdown, accompanied by a moderate degradation of the on-current. The multiple steps include: before breakdown 242, first breakdown 244, second breakdown 246 and third breakdown 248.

After electrical breakdown, chart 250 and inset 256 in FIG. 2 f show the I_(ds)-V_(g) curves 255, 254, 253, 252 and 251 at different V_(ds) from −0.2 to −1 V and I_(ds)-V_(ds) curves at different V_(g) from −8 to 8 V. The chart 260 in FIG. 2 g shows a statistical study of about 50 devices from about 10 chips with L=0.75 μm and various W before and after electrical breakdown, where the on-state current density is plotted verses the on/off ratio. I_(on) is measured at V_(ds)=1 V and V_(g)=−10 V, and I_(off) is measured at V_(ds)=1 V and V_(g)=10 V. Before breakdown 262, the devices exhibited on/off ratios in the range of 1 to 10, due to the presence of metallic nanotubes. In contrast, after electrical breakdown 264, the on/off ratios underwent significant improvement to the range of 10² to 10⁵ with narrow on-state current distribution, which can be used as building blocks for the following nanotube circuits.

In addition to the tuning of the on/off ratio using electrical breakdown, the transistor conductance can be adjusted by performing multiple steps of nanotube transfer to increase the tube density. The chart 270 in FIG. 2 h shows the I_(ds)-V_(g) curves 272 and 274 of two representative devices, with one and two steps of transfer, respectively. Devices fabricated in the double transfer region can show ˜2.2 times more current per unit width in FIG. 2 h. Multiple nanotube transfer is a novel technique to compensate the decreased current after electrical breakdown, and additional transfers can be performed to achieve even higher current densities.

Besides the back-gated devices, top-gated devices can be fabricated by defining top-gate electrodes on back-gated devices. Compared with the common back-gate devices, the top-gate structure has an intrinsic benefit such as individual control of each transistor in a nanotube circuit. In order to make the top-gate electrodes, the pattern can be formed using photolithography, 50 nm Al₂O₃ can be deposited using atomic layer deposition (ALD) as top-gate dielectric, and 5 nm Ti/45 nm Pd can be deposited as the top-gate electrodes, followed by lift-off process.

FIG. 3 a shows an example schematic diagram 300 of a top-gated device, where top gate partially covers the active channel so that nanotubes can be exposed to n-type dopants such as potassium. FIG. 3 b shows an SEM image 310 of nanotubes that bridge between S/D electrodes and are partially covered by Al₂O₃ and top-gate. FIG. 3 c includes a chart 320 and an inset 322 that show the typical transfer characteristics (I_(ds)-V_(g) curves) for a transistor with W=25 μm, L=3 μm, and top-gate length=1 μm after proper electrical breakdown. FIG. 3 d shows the typical output characteristics (I_(ds)-V_(ds) curves) for a transistor with W=25 μm, L=3 μm, and top-gate length=1 μm after proper electrical breakdown. The I_(ds)-V_(ds) curves appear to be very linear, indicating that ohmic contacts are formed between the electrodes and the nanotubes. The on-current is measured to be 20 μA, corresponding to a current density of 0.8 μA/μm, and the on/off ratio exceeds 104. Such devices can be used in doping study as described below.

Characteristics of CMOS circuits can include low static power consumption. Significant power is drawn when the CMOS circuits are switching between on and off states. Unlike doping in silicon CMOS processes, nanotubes can not be easily doped via ion implantation. The ability to obtain both p- and n-type nanotube FETs can be important to construct complementary electronics. A p-type nanotube device can be doped electrostatically, substitutionally, or via charge transfer to convert it into an n-type one. Four different methods, with potassium and electrostatic doping for top-gated devices, and polyethilenimine (PEI) and hydrazine (N₂H₄) for back-gated ones, are described to produce n-type transistors and to evaluate the most practical way for integrated circuits.

In order to dope nanotube devices with potassium, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) can be spin-coated as a capping layer for p-type transistor, and then the window can be opened up for other devices which can be altered into n-type after doping, as shown in the chart 350 and the inset 352 of FIG. 3 f. This device can be loaded into high vacuum (˜10-5 torr), followed by the evaporation of potassium. FIG. 3 e is a chart 340 that shows the I_(ds)-V_(g) characteristics of the top-gated transistor before 342 and after 344 potassium doping. This doping produces n-type transistor by shifting the Fermi level of nanotubes to the conduction band, and the conductance of the transistor increases at positive gate voltage. The potassium doping can be advantageous over other doping methods such as PEI showing low on-off ratio, and N₂H₄ with toxicity and difficulty in integration. Armed with potassium doping, a truly integrated CMOS aligned nanotube inverter can be generated. For example, the integrated CMOS aligned nanotube inverter includes the p-type and n-type transistors residing on one chip and located side by side.

FIG. 3 f includes the voltage transfer characteristics (VTC) 354, the schematic diagram 356, and the photo image 352 of the CMOS inverter. The inverter as described in this specification can be operated with a V_(DD)=2 V and an input voltage range from 0 to 2.5 V. The gain deduced from the VTC data 354 is 5, which can be high enough to drive a more complicated logic circuit such as a ring oscillator.

In addition to potassium doping, electrostatic doping are studied on top-gated transistors with Si common back-gate. Electrostatic doping effects can be utilized in the dual-gate nanotube FET to obtain the polarity control (p or n) and to tune the threshold voltage of FET. The chart 360 in FIG. 3 g exhibits the current-gate voltage (I-V_(g)) characteristics of the dual-gated transistor, and shows p- and n-type properties at back-gate voltage (V_(g))=−20 V and 20 V, respectively, which can be understood as follows. For sufficiently negative (or positive) back-gate voltage, the Schottky barriers are thinned enough to allow for hole (or electron) tunneling from the metal contact into the nanotube, and thus the nanotube channel can be electrostatically doped into p-type or n-type. Line 362 shows the data before electrical doping and line 364 shows the data after electrostatic doping. Therefore, varying the top gate voltage can switch on and off the transistor with assist of back-gate voltage, which determines the type of majority carrier and the device on-current. In the device as described in this specification, the n-type conduction is slightly lower than the p-type conduction, which is attributed to asymmetrical Schottky barrier heights for holes and electrons, and environmental doping effect from O₂ and moisture. In addition, the current verses the top-gate voltage (I-V_(g)) is measured at different back-gate V_(g) from −20 to 20 V, and a significant shift of threshold voltage and enhancement of n-type conduction are observed from 0 to −6 V, as shown in the chart 370 in FIG. 3 h. Compared with other doping methods such as potassium and hydrazine, which are not stable in air, the electrostatic doping is stable and tunable, but requires sophisticated device structure and circuit design.

Based on top-gated aligned nanotube transistors, more sophisticated PMOS circuits can be implemented. However, there may be misaligned or misoriented nanotubes in these devices that can result in incorrect logic behavior. Techniques, apparatus and system are described to implement a defect-tolerant structure to guarantee the correct logic behavior. The defect-immune circuit layouts can be implemented for PMOS NOR and NAND circuits. FIGS. 4 a-c show defect-influence layout, and two defect-tolerate layouts with transistors connected in parallel, respectively. In FIG. 4 a, the diagram 400 shows misaligned nanotubes 402 outside the gates A and B that are not under the control of either gate and therefore may impair the logic operation. In FIG. 4 b, the nanotubes 412 lying between gates A and B can be removed using oxygen plasma etching, and thus this design is immune to such misaligned nanotubes. Furthermore, FIG. 4 c represents an even better design, where two transistors controlled by gates A and B are connected in parallel and utilize the same bunch of aligned nanotubes. This design can allow virtually identical device performance between two parallel transistors.

PMOS circuits can be fabricated using the defect-immune layout. FIGS. 4 d and 4 e show SEM images 432 and 442 of the integrated pull-up networks, the schematic diagrams 434 and 444, and the output characteristics 436 and 446 for PMOS NOR and NAND, respectively. 20 MΩ resistive load can be chosen so that it is between the on-state resistance and the off-state resistance of the transistors. The NAND and NOR circuits can be both operated with a V_(DD) of 1V. 10V and −10V applying on gates A and B are treated as logic “1” and “0,” respectively. For the NAND, the output is “1” when either one of the two inputs is “0,” while for the NOR, the output is “0” when either one of the two inputs is “1.” These output characteristics confirm that the circuits described in this specification realized the logic function correctly. However, the design in FIG. 4 b may suffer from the problem of having nonuniform nanotube density and consequently different characteristics for gates A and B. FIG. 4 f shows the output data 452 and schematic diagram 454 of a PMOS NAND gate, where the nanotube density happened to be nonuniform. The outputs are asymmetric between the point I and II, and also the transfer characteristics for gates A and B show a significant difference in terms of on-current. The low output at point II is attributed to the relatively large DC current leakage through the pull-down resistor, which is comparable to the on-current of transistor controlled by gate A. In contrast, for the NAND with design shown in FIGS. 4 c and 4 g inset 462, the transistor transfer characteristics and the outputs 464 of circuits are more symmetric than the ones in FIG. 4 f. This confirms that the NAND design in FIG. 4 c performs the logic function correctly even with nonuniform nanotube density and misaligned nanotubes.

While PMOS logic is easy to design and manufacture, it has several shortcomings as well. For example, the current flows through the pull-down resistor when the pull-up network is active, as discussed above. This can lead to static power dissipation even when the circuit sits idle. In order to overcome such problem, CMOS nanotube circuits can be implemented using the defect-tolerant design with individual back-gates for efficient chemical doping. Specifically, the individual back-gated devices have relative advantages over the top-gated ones, such as easy chemical doping and electrical breakdown owing to the fully exposed device structure. For the individual back-gated devices, individual back-gate electrodes can be defined on Si/SiO₂ wafer via photolithography, 5 nm Ti/45 nm Au deposition, and a lift-off process. 50 nm ALD HfO₂ can be deposited as the gate-dielectric, and then the aligned nanotubes can be transferred. Finally, the source/drain electrodes can be formed.

FIG. 5 a is a diagram 500 showing a CMOS NOR device. FIG. 5 b is a diagram 510 showing a CMOS NAND device. After the device fabrication, the potassium doping is performed to obtain n-type devices as mentioned in the CMOS inverter study. FIG. 5 c shows an SEM image 520 of the CMOS NOR device. FIG. 5 d shows an SEM image 530 of the CMOS NAND device. The pull-up and pull-down networks are built on the same nanotube arrays, and the pull-down network is converted from p-type into n-type after potassium doping. Compared with the PMOS circuits, the CMOS logic circuits shows almost ideal performance, where the outputs are close to 0 V or 1.0 V, as shown in charts 540 and 550 in FIGS. 5 e and 5 f.

The techniques, apparatus and systems as described can be used to perform CMOS-analogous wafer-scale processing of integrated aligned nanotube circuits, including progress on wafer-scale synthesis and transfer of aligned nanotubes, metallic nanotube removal and chemical doping, and defect-tolerant integrated nanotube circuits. Synthesis of massive aligned nanotubes can be achieved on complete 4 inch quartz and sapphire substrates, followed by successful transfer of the nanotubes to 4 inch Si/SiO₂ wafers. CMOS analogous fabrication is performed to yield transistors and circuits with features down to 0.5 μm, with high current density ˜20 μA/μm and good on/off ratios. In addition, extensive chemical doping is used to build fully integrated complementary inverter with a gain ˜5. Also, defect-tolerant designs are implemented for NAND and NOR gates.

FIG. 6 shows an example of full wafer-scale aligned nanotube synthesis on 4 inch quartz wafers 600. Aligned nanotubes can be synthesized on 4 inch quartz wafers and source/drain electrodes can be patterned, as shown in FIG. 6. SEM images of the top 610, bottom 620, left 630, right 640 and center 650 confirm that aligned nanotubes are successfully grown with uniform density on the entire quartz wafer. The samples used for the device study have typical nanotube density of 2-5 tubes/μm.

As discussed before, multiple times of transfer can be used to increase the nanotube density. However, when the total number of transfers exceeds 2, the layer-by-layer transfer technique may fail because the adhesion between the gold film and the receiving substrate may become week with more than 2 transfers. By using stacking transfer, the adhesion problem can be solved. For example, 4 transfers are described below with increased nanotube density of more than 50 tubes/μm.

FIG. 7 shows an example of a process for stacking multiple transfers. The transfer process is the same as the gold film plus thermal releasing tape transfer technique discussed previously. Diagram 710 shows the as grown aligned nanotubes on quartz. Thermal releasing tape plus gold film are applied multiple times to the aligned nanotubes as shown in 720, 730, 740 and 750. The gold films can be transferred to a Si/SiO₂ substrate by stacking the gold films on top of each other as shown in 760. Gold etching can be performed on the stacked gold films together as shown in 770. After the etching process, nanotubes will lay down to the substrate and form ultra high density aligned carbon nanotube network on the receiving substrate as shown in 780.

FIGS. 8 a, 8 b, 8 c and 8 d show SEM images before transfer 800, after 1-time transfer 810, after 2-time transfer 820, and after 4-time transfer 830, respectively. The corresponding nanotube densities are 15 tubes/μm, 15 tube/μm, 29 tubes/μm, and 55 tubes/μm, respectively.

In some implementations, n-type transistors can also be achieved by metal contact engineering. Pd, with a large work function, can align with the valence band of the carbon nanotubes, and form ohmic contacts for holes. Consequently, the devices with Pd contacts can exhibit p-type behavior. Thus by using metals with small work function as the electrodes, n-type conduction from the nanotubes can be obtained as well. For example, metal contact engineering can be applied to the above described aligned nanotube platform. Combining small work function metal Gadolinium (Gd) for n-type contact and large work function metal Palladium (Pd) for p-type contact, registration-free fabrication of air-stable n-type aligned nanotube transistors, PN-junctions, and CMOS integrated inverters can be obtained. Other metals with low works functions, (such as Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Gadolinium (Gd), Dysprosium (Dy), Ytterbium (Yb), or Terbium (Tb), and so on) can work equally well for this purpose.

70 nm Gd can be deposited by thermal evaporation followed by the lift-off process to form the source and drain metal contacts. FIGS. 9 a and 9 b show a schematic diagram 900 and an SEM image 910 of above described devices. The electrical properties of the devices can be characterized and all the measurements can be carried out in air. For aligned nanotubes devices, due to the presence of both metallic and semiconductive nanotubes, metallic nanotube removal technique such as electrical breakdown may be needed.

FIG. 9 c is a chart 930 that shows the transfer (I_(D)-V_(G)) characteristics of a typical n-type nanotube transistor (L=4 μm, and W=8 μm) measured before and after electrical breakdown. Before breakdown 932, the device exhibits on/off ratio of around 2. After electrical breakdown 934, the on/off ratio is improved to around 1000 with a trade-off with the on-current. FIG. 9 d is a chart 940 that shows the transfer characteristics of the device after electrical breakdown measured under different drain voltages. For example, the transfer characteristics are shown for the different drain voltages of V_(D)=1.0 V 941, 0.8 V 942, 0.6 V 943, 0.4 V 944 and 0.2 V 945. FIG. 9 e is a chart 950 that shows output characteristics (I_(D)-V_(D)) of the devices measured under different gate voltages. For example, the output characteristics are shown for gate voltages of −10 V 961, −9 V 960, −8 V 959, −7 V 958, −6 V 957, −5 V 956, −4 V 955, −3 V 954, −2 V 953, −1 V 952 and 0 V 951. From the transfer characteristic, one can find that the transistor exhibits clear n-type behavior. The output characteristics appears to be very linear for V_(D) smaller than 1V, indicating that ohmic contacts are formed between the Gd electrodes and the nanotubes. Under higher V_(D), the device exhibits saturation behavior which indicates nice field-effect operation.

Using similar approach, diode devices can also be achieved. FIGS. 10 a, 10 b and 10 c show a schematic diagram 1000, an optical microscope image 1010 and an SEM image (with artificial color) 1020 of a diode device. The device fabrication is similar to the above mentioned n-type transistor, except that the Gd extension is patterned to one of the electrodes but not the other. In this case, Pd can align with the valence band and form ohmic contact for holes at one terminal, and Gd can align with the conduction band and form ohmic contact for electrons at the other terminal. This can result in the PN-junction.

FIGS. 10 d, 10 e and 10 f show the corresponding energy band diagrams in equilibrium 1040, forward-bias 1050 and reverse-bias 1060 respectively. With positive voltages applied to the p-side, the device operates in the forward-bias region and the barrier height reduces. Consequently, current flow increases exponentially with the applied positive bias voltage. In contrast, with negative voltages applied to the p-side, the device operates in the reverse-bias region and the barrier height increases, preventing the current from flowing.

The above-mentioned processes translate into the two-terminal I-V characteristic of the PN-junction shown in chart 1070 of FIG. 10 g (linear scale) and chart 1080 of FIG. 10 h (logarithm scale), which exhibits clear rectifying behavior. Moreover, by changing the gate voltages applied to the diode, the energy band of the nanotube in the channel can be modulated and this results in the modulation of the current. The gate dependence of the I-V characteristics of the diode is plotted in chart 1090 of FIG. 10 i. The I-V characteristics are shown for gate voltages (V_(G)) of −6 V 1091, −4V 1092, −2 V 1093, 0 V 1094, 2 V 1095, 4 V 1096 and 6 V 1097.

Furthermore, an integrated CMOS inverter can be demonstrated with different source drain metal contacts for optimum pull-up and pull-down performance. FIGS. 11 a and 11 b show a schematic diagram 1100 and an optical microscope image 1110 of an integrated CMOS inverter. The CMOS inverter shown in FIGS. 11 a and 11 b features individual Ti/Au back-gate, Pd contacted p-type device and Gd contacted n-type device. FIG. 11 c is an SEM image 1120 (with artificial color) showing the n-type branch of the CMOS inverter which clearly highlights the aligned carbon nanotubes in the channel, original Ti/Pd metal contacts, Gd source/drain extensions and Ti/Au back-gate.

FIGS. 11 d and 11 e show the transfer characteristics of a p-type pull-up branch, and an n-type pull-down branch of the CMOS inverter respectively. The corresponding energy band diagrams 1146 and 1156 are shown as the insets. From their transfer characteristics, the output resistance of the p-type and n-type transistors can be derived at different gate voltages. For example, FIG. 11 d shows the drain current-gate voltage (I_(D)-V_(G)) curves 1141, 1142, 1143, 1144 and 1145 for the p-type transistor. From the curves 1141, 1142, 1143, 1144 and 1145, the output resistance can be derived. FIG. 11 e shows the drain current-gate voltage (I_(D)-V_(G)) curves 1151, 1152, 1153, 1154 and 1155 for the n-type transistor. From the curves 1151, 1152, 1153, 1154 and 1155, the output resistance can be derived.

Based on the derived output resistances and by treating p-type and n-type transistors as a voltage divider, the simulated inverter voltage transfer characteristics (VTC) 1162 can be derived as shown in FIG. 11 f. To measure the VTC of the inverter, 3 V can be applied as the V_(DD) and the input voltage can be swept from 0 V to 5 V. The measurement results are compared with the simulation results obtained from FIG. 11 f and are plotted in FIG. 11 g. The measurement results 1174 match the simulation results 1172 well. As input voltage increases, the output voltage changes from V_(DD) to 0, and this rail-to-rail operation is expected since it is a CMOS inverter. The switching threshold happens at around V_(IN)=2.65 V when both NMOS and PMOS are simultaneously on, and this results in a maximum gain of 3.6.

FIGS. 12 a-g show implementations of a process 1200 for wafer-scale processing of aligned nanotube devices. The process 1200 can include growing aligned nanotubes on at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate (1210); transferring the grown aligned nanotubes onto a target substrate (1220); and fabricating at least one device based on the transferred nanotubes (1230).

The at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate can be sized to be at least one of two inches in diameter. Growing the aligned nanotubes on the at least one of a wafer-scale quartz substrate or a wafer-scale sapphire substrate can be carried out with a temperature ramping rate of less than one ° C. per minute but greater than zero ° C. per minute near a quartz phase transition temperature to avoid breakage of quartz wafer (1212).

Transferring the grown aligned nanotubes onto a target substrate can include coating the aligned nanotubes with a film (1221); peeling off the film together with aligned nanotubes using a thermal tape to obtain a composite of the nanotubes and the film (1222); pressing the composite of the nanotubes and the film against the target substrate (1223); removing the thermal tape by heating up the target substrate (1224); and removing the film to leave the nanotubes on the target substrate (1225).

The method can include stacking multiple transfers of nanotubes to increase tube density (1226). Stacking multiple transfers can include stacking multiple composites of the nanotubes and the film on top of each other and over the target substrate. The stacked composites can be etched together to form a network of the aligned nanotubes on the target substrate (1227). The film can include at last one of a metal film or a polymer film. The metal film can include at least one of aluminum or copper. The polymer film can include Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA).

The fabricating can include fabricating submicron back-gated nanotube transistors on the transferred nanotubes with SiO2 as a gate dielectric and Si as a back-gate at a wafer-scale (1232). The fabricating can include fabricating submicron top-gated nanotube transistors on the transferred nanotubes with high-κ Al2O3 or HfO2 as a gate dielectric and a metal electrode as a top-gate at a wafer-scale (1234). Additionally, stacking multiple transfers of nanotubes can be performed to increase tube density. The fabricating can include fabricating submicron individual back-gated nanotube transistors on the transferred nanotubes with high-κ Al₂O₃ or Hf₂O as a back-gate dielectric and a metal electrode as an individual back-gate (1236).

The method can include using a defect-tolerant circuit design for a nanotube based integrated circuit, wherein the defect-tolerant circuit design comprises etching away unwanted nanotubes and using same group of nanotubes for the at least one device (1238). The individual back-gated nanotube transistors can facilitate a doping process. The method can include using at least one metal with low work functions as source and drain contacts to align the nanotubes for at least one of n-type nanotube transistors, PN junctions, or CMOS integrated circuits. The at least one metal with low work functions comprises Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Gadolinium (Gd), Dysprosium (Dy), Ytterbium (Yb), or Terbium (Tb). The fabricating can include fabricating multiple wafer-scale devices comprising at least one of back-gated transistors, top-gated transistors, CMOS inverters, CMOS NOR logic gates, CMOS NAND logic gates, or ring oscillators (1239).

While this specification contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of an invention or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular embodiments of the invention. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or a variation of a subcombination.

Only a few implementations are disclosed. However, it is understood that variations and enhancements may be made. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method comprising: growing aligned carbon nanotubes on a substrate of a first type; transferring the aligned carbon nanotubes onto a substrate of a second type by (i) repeatedly applying film and tape to form a stack of layers on the substrate of the second type, wherein each of the layers in the stack comprises at least some of the aligned carbon nanotubes in the film of that layer, and (ii) removing the film from the stack to leave the transferred carbon nanotubes on the substrate of the second type; and fabricating at least one device using the transferred carbon nanotubes on the substrate of the second type.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the film comprises polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA).
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the film comprises gold film, and the removing comprises using gold etchant.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the tape comprises thermal tape, and the applying comprises, for each of the layers: depositing the gold film on carbon nanotubes on the substrate of the first type to form the layer; using the thermal tape to remove the layer from the substrate of the first type at a first temperature; placing the layer on the substrate of the second type; and removing the thermal tape from the layer at a second temperature.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate of the first type comprises a quartz substrate.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the growing comprises using a temperature ramping rate of less than one ° C. per minute but greater than zero ° C. per minute.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate of the first type comprises a sapphire substrate.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate of the second type comprises a Si/SiO₂ wafer.
 9. A method comprising: growing aligned carbon nanotubes on a substrate of a first type; transferring the aligned carbon nanotubes onto a substrate of a second type; and fabricating at least one device using the transferred carbon nanotubes on the substrate of the second type; wherein the fabricating comprises forming a p-type transistor using a large work function metal for a p-type contact of the p-type transistor, and forming an n-type transistor using a small work function metal for an n-type contact of the n-type transistor.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the large work function metal comprises Palladium (Pd).
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the small work function metal comprises Gadolinium (Gd).
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the small work function metal comprises Scandium (Sc).
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the small work function metal comprises Yttrium (Y).
 14. The method of claim 10, wherein the small work function metal comprises Dysprosium (Dy).
 15. The method of claim 10, wherein the small work function metal comprises Ytterbium (Yb).
 16. The method of claim 10, wherein the small work function metal comprises Terbium (Tb).
 17. A method comprising: growing carbon nanotubes on a substrate of a first type; transferring the carbon nanotubes onto a substrate of a second type; and fabricating at least one device using the transferred carbon nanotubes on the substrate of the second type; wherein the fabricating comprises forming a defect-tolerant circuit comprising two transistors connected in parallel that utilize a same bunch of carbon nanotubes, the two transistors having control gates A and B, and a source of electricity connected with the same bunch of carbon nanotubes between a bifurcated output.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the defect-tolerant circuit comprises a NAND circuit that performs correctly with nonuniform nanotube density and misaligned nanotubes.
 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the gates A and B comprise top-gates.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein the gates A and B comprise back-gates.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the circuit comprises a NOR device.
 22. The method of claim 20, wherein the circuit comprises a NAND device. 